eBook: Advanced Tools Transforming Neurology Research - 9

inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines,
as well as preventing antigen presentation
blocking major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
class II expression and co-stimulatory molecules
such as CD80/CD86.11,24
Cellular signaling pathways Cellular signaling
pathways, such as the NF-κB and MAPK pathways
along with crucial regulators such as TREM-2 are
central to the regulation of neuroinflammation.8,9
Cell signaling pathways regulate neuroinflammation
by modulating the expression of astrocyte
chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Small
molecule inhibitors targeting key signaling molecules
are actively studied as potential therapeutics.
Biomarkers Biomarkers are critical for diagnosing
and monitoring neuroinflammatory diseases.
Biomarkers of neuroinflammation mainly refer
to the specific expression of transcription factors,
enzymes, cytoskeletal proteins, and receptors by
neurons and glia. Specific proteins, such as glial
fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), myelin basic protein
(MBP), and Clusterin (TRPM2) can serve as biomarkers.12,23,25
In
addition, AD biomarkers include
growth factors (BDNF, NGF, VEGF), microglial inflammation
markers (YKL40), and astroglial injury
markers (GFAP), which are very important for early
diagnosis of AD.
Emerging 3D models for
neuroinflammation research
Since the inception of neuroscience, primary cells,
immortalized cell lines, and animal models have
been vastly used as model organisms. A more
recent trend is the use of organoids. Specifically,
neural organoids have emerged as invaluable
tools in the study of neuroinflammation.13
These
three-dimensional miniaturized brain models
are cultivated from pluripotent stem cells by using
various cytokines and growth factors such
as BDNF, NGF, BFGF, CNTF, EGF, IGF, and TGF-β,
offering a unique platform to investigate the
complexities of neuroinflammatory responses
within a physiologically relevant context.26-28
Proinflammatory
cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β
can be introduced to organoids to simulate infections
to mimic the pathological conditions of the
central nervous system. This enables the study of
microglial activation, immune cell infiltration, and
the impact of neuroinflammation on neural cells
within a controlled environment.13,26
Figure 2. Featured products for neuroinflammatory
9

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eBook: Advanced Tools Transforming Neurology Research

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