IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine - February 2020 - 34

method is introduced for the overall energy efficiency. Based
on that background, we further develop a multiple-hop
scheduling algorithm to maximize the throughput of our
designed low-rate long-distance IoT network. In Section IV,
for general IoT nodes, we design an AI-based power control
system for switching to sleep mode. In Section V, we describe
a real-world deployment of the proposed design using Raspberry Pi and discuss the outlook for future network deployments. In Section  VI, we conclude this paper by highlighting
the green approaches.
II. LoRa and ZigBee Ad Hoc Network

Most of the unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical frequency bands operated by LPWA use center frequencies of
2.4 GHz, 868/915 MHz (ZigBee), 433 MHz (LPD433), and
169 MHz (SRD). The first design of short-range IoT devices
was limited to line-of-sight distance [14]. For example, ZigBee can maintain the speed of 250 kbit/s, and Bluetooth can
maintain the speed of 2 Mbit/s [15], [16], while the communi-

cation ranges are limited to 100 meters or even less [17].
Although receivers such as ZigBee have very high sensitivity
[18], they cannot expand to cellular-like coverage ranges due
to the distinct channel disturbance and poor penetration.
With the exponential growth of the number of IoT devices,
it is foreseeable that the topology of these devices will extend as
well as that of cellular networks [19]. Due to the signaling
overhead and inability to avoid multiple hops, the supported
flow-level throughput is much lower than the theoretical
transmission rate. The channel environment is also entirely
different from that of a single-hop transmission. The actual
bandwidth requirements are unsatisfied by a large-scale IoT
network [20], even if bandwidth usage is composed of intermittent and sporadic data transmissions required by edge
sensors. Additionally, packet loss and delay become problematic, and the situation could be even worse in an energyhungry scenario.
A groundbreaking alternative solution is to use the unlicensed sub-gigahertz radio frequency band, widely known as

Industrial
Monitoring

Caution
Alert
Smart
Vehicles
Water Meter

Refrigerator
Parking Meter

Smart Home

Smart Dustbin
FIGURE 1 Simple and low-power yet still useful IoT devices are widely deployed presently.

34

IEEE COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE MAGAZINE | FEBRUARY 2020



IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine - February 2020

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