IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine - October 2015 - 102

of vehicle interface is between self-driving cars, manually
steered vehicles, and other, so-called vulnerable road users
(VRUs), whose attention may also be divided between the road
and their mobile phones. When humans, as passengers in semiautomated or automated vehicles, are no longer directly
responsible for human-human/interpersonal communication
and negotiation, new interactive paradigms must be considered
and designed to protect people in manually controlled cars and
VRUs within shared road space. Thus, automotive user interface research must also formally extend outward to include
intervehicular interaction rather than being limited to the mainly intravehicular environment, as is the present case. In this
article, we will examine broader issues of user interface (UI)
consistency in vehicular contexts and present recommendations for future automotive UI research.

functions/controls in vehicles has increased. For example, in
1962, a BMW 3200 CS had 17 controls, while a 2011 BMW
X5 had more than 80 controls, including iDrive.
Today, more than 1.2 billion vehicles are running on roads, and
this number is forecast to increase to 1.8 billion vehicles in 2035
and 2.7 billion vehicles in 2050 [13]. According to recent projections, the share of self-driving vehicles as compared to total vehicles will be <1% by 2025, 1-4% by 2030, and could be in the
range of 30% [9], [12] by 2050. Thus, the trend indicates a rather
low share of automated traffic in the coming decades. People will
have to deal with coexisting manual and self-driving vehicles for a
long time. An essential problem relating to autonomous vehicle
road safety is that "many of the accidents which computers will
not be able to prevent are those caused by humans either as pedestrians or drivers of traditional cars" [16].

THE INDIVIDUAL DRIVER IN
THE CONTEXT OF AUTOMATED DRIVING

As long as there are pedestrians
or other VRUs in the system,
vehicles that are not automated,
and computer programs with
errors, the cooperation of those
participating in traffic will be
subject to the agency of humans
and the errors of automation.
HISTORY OF DRIVING
In the late 19th century, the first vehicles had no instrument
gauges for feedback and were steered by trained drivers
called constructors [1]. With broader vehicle distribution, the
first instruments providing feedback (e.g., cooling-water temperature and oil level, later extended with tachometer, speedometer, and fuel-level indicators) were integrated, but
usability and consistency issues were disregarded at the time,
resulting in different experiences for drivers of different vehicles. Pushed by the development of war machinery during
World War II (first discussed in the 1940s), an understanding
of the limitations of driver capabilities, such as anthropomorphism, vision, reaction time, human factors in traffic crashes,
distraction, and cognitive load, became necessary to improve
driving efficiency and prevent crashes. In the 1950s, this
understanding of driver issues finally converged into several
publications by formal standards groups, defining consistent
appearance, arrangement, and reachability of operational
controls, indicator units, and control lamps in vehicles: Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) SP142, International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 4513, ISO 4040, and
ISO 3958. Since then, the number of vehicles on our roads
has increased by a factor of seven to eight (based on German
figures for 1962-2012), and, similarly, the quantity of
102 IEEE ConsumEr ElECtronICs magazInE

^

october 2015

We can infer that when system functions are allocated to a computer or an automated controller, such as those found in hybrid
automated systems (HASs) and intelligent vehicle control systems, the interaction between people and the system may be limited [11]. [HASs aim at integrating the capabilities of intelligent
(i.e., based on computer technology) machines with the capacities of the people who interact with these machines in the course
of their work activities [3], [11].] Consequently, people lose
some ability to control the system. According to Wickens [23],
this can lead to severe problems in cases of system malfunction
when people should take over control but are unable to do so.
Automated system control (e.g., the absence of user involvement
in processes) decreases a driver's situation awareness and overall
agency (free will to choose), compromising the safety of the
driver when system error recovery is needed [24, p. 452].
These problems can motivate the development of systems
that will allocate functions with different levels of automation
that can inform drivers based on their current context at any
time, e.g., [10] and [15]. For example, car manufacturer Audi
is planning to integrate a "check-in" feature that ensures that
the driver is awake or paying attention to the road and would
thus be held responsible if there were to be an accident or
some other problem during his or her drive [18]. For practical
reasons, in semiautomated and automated vehicles, a driver
must be permanently aware of his or her vehicle's behavior
(i.e., he or she must remain in the loop), monitoring the driving
situation and taking over immediately in case of a system takeover request or if a critical situation is detected. Audi's position
aligns with California's legislation from 16 September 2014,
which states, "self-driving cars are only legal on public roads if
a driver is able to take immediate physical control" [7].
However, this restraint does not comply with the U.S.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
Level 3 "Limited Self-Driving Automation" policy, which states
that a driver is expected to be available for occasional control but
with sufficiently comfortable transition time [15]. According to a
2014 study, for Level 3 automation, the estimated time presently
required for the driver to resume control of the vehicle is about



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