IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine - October 2015 - 109

Different Types
of Pressures

Disturbances

Fatigue
Is Affected by
Is Affected
by

Traveling
Conditions

Is Affected by
Driver

Has
Physiological
Reactions
Are

Is

Vehicle

Drives

Has

Has

Has

Physical
Reactions

Is

Driving
Operation

Driving
Behavior

Is
Skin Electric
Potential

Brain
Waves
Blinking

Is Affected by

Heart
Rate

Is

Head Pose

Is

Is

Changes

Gripping Force
on Steering Wheel
Posture

Change
Changes

Steering
Wheel

Is

Lateral
Position

Is
Speed

Brakes
Accelerator

FIGURE 1. Aspects that can be used to determine the level of drowsiness of a driver.

More specifically, we review DFD development efforts by
considering different aspects:
▼ organizational, focusing on the key players known at the
moment, such as universities, companies, and government
agencies
▼ psychophysiological, focusing on fatigue-related aspects
from a biometric point of view and how to measure and
detect them
▼ feature-extraction methods, focusing on the research of
existing solutions with the aim of measuring the level of
drowsiness of the driver.

CONCEPTUAL MAP OF DFD SYSTEMS DESIGN
While the systems that deal with this critical concern are
diverse, they can be divided into two main groups in terms
of the approach they take to detect abnormal driver behavior: those focused on the driver or those focused on the
vehicle features [14]. Figure 1 illustrates a conceptual map
that features the different aspects commonly considered for
DFD systems. This illustration shows how the driver is
influenced by several factors, such as traveling conditions,
fatigue, stress, and other disturbances. All of these factors
are reflected in the driver (physiological and physical reactions) and the way the vehicle is driven (driving operation
and behavior).

ORGANIZATIONAL FRAMEWORK
There are five types of organizations involved in drowsiness/
inattention systems development: original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), electronic components/modules suppliers

(Tier 1), specialized companies, government organizations,
and universities. The OEMs are entities that are working to
propose new safety features to their customers (drivers), and
they have been investing in DFD technology to offer new
options in their vehicles to be more competitive. Some of the
involved companies are Saab/General Motors [40], [50];
DaimlerChrysler [40]; Toyota [3], [40]; Scania [40]-[42]; [51],
Ford/Volvo [39], [40], [52]; Volkswagen [53]; Nissan [14];
BMW [54]; and Caterpillar [8].
Tier-1 suppliers must be aware of their direct customers'
trends. The Tier-1 suppliers' direct customers are often the
OEMs. To satisfy the OEMs' requests, Tier-1 suppliers have
to develop modules or units that bring into play new technologies and methods that fit OEMs' systems and requirements.
Tier-1 suppliers include Delphi [8], [40]; Bosch [39]; Denso
[11], [28], [38], [39], [55]; Visteon [40]; and Siemens [36],
[37], [54].
In addition to the Tier-1 suppliers, there are other specialized
companies that could sell either to OEMs, Tier-1 suppliers, or
drivers themselves (end consumers). These groups are usually
small, and they are composed of people who previously were
part of the academic sector [20], [22], [32], [43]. A considerable
number of companies have appeared in this new market, and the
most well-known entities are Smart Eye [8], [17], [36], [40],
[56]; AssistWare Technologies [8], [39], [57]; Attention Technologies [8], [39], [57]; and Seeing Machines [8], [39]. Table 2
shows the three types of DFD developers and contributors in the
private sector that may or may not be still active.
On the other hand, there are several universities and governmental divisions in different countries developing and/or
october 2015

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IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine

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Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine - October 2015
