IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - December 2020 - 19

its use is completely integrated into the regular operating
process so that, consequently, resources will be mobilized in
the same direction. In addition, the images carry a kind of
proof due to the visual nature of the data itself, meeting the
evidence-based-planning approach [17]. Their value to their
organizations relies on the fact that they sustain and secure
their existence.
In situations where there is no direct financial gain, providing symbolic gains of popularity and social legitimacy offers a higher level of influence to the territories, paving the
way to think, for instance, of the urbanization phenomenon
and the synergies that may arise among different types of
urban, suburban, and rural areas [23]. In fact, their existence
and availability require responses to new obligations in
terms of monitoring and evaluating emerging activities as
soon as the technology becomes available. As a particular
example, a satellite-implementation plan was effectively put
in place in the state services of the French Ministry of Ecology. Additionally, to face operational difficulties related to
forest control, the systematic mapping of clear-cuts, based
on HR satellite imagery and developed by GEOSUD, has
been used operationally since 2013 by the regional and local
services of the French Ministry of Agriculture. The labeling of
the mapping method and the training sessions as well as the
accompaniment tools (user manual and online technical assistance) has been set as a support for the appropriation of
these images. However, for local authorities, the geomatics
benefits can be found mainly in large organizations due to
a culture based on cadastral plots and aerial images, which
are always present.
Thus, the satellite remote sensing technology should de--
monstrate its complementarity, and even its superiority, to
aerial images with the arrival of new VHR and large-coverage
constellations, such as Pleiades NEO. This progression takes
into account the knowledge of both the technicians in charge
of using these tools and elected officials and policy makers.
The decision to invest in this technology within different
public administrations is not just necessarily political; there
are institutional ministerial decisions related to public policies. Unlike ministries, which have a central administration
to put a strategy in place and diffuse it throughout all of the
decentralized services, the political power of local authorities
makes the labeling and recommendation mechanism more
difficult, given the need to reproduce these tasks in each
of the communities. Hence, the weight of politics is much
stronger at a community scale. Technicians must convince
the political power, such as intercommunity and municipal
councils, to invest in this technology. Thus, it will be important to understand, with respect to each specific context, to
what extent the images have made it possible to change practices and identify the opportunities gained by their use in the
entity's organization.
SATELLITE IMAGERY AS AN INFORMATIONAL ASSET
In the context of SDIs, the value attributed to satellite information reflects the creation of a common resource by the
DECEMBER 2020

IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING MAGAZINE

infrastructure, characterized as an informational asset. With
an economy increasingly focused on intangible resources
[31], [59], behavioral economics [12], and platform paradigms [43], the informational asset is becoming an essential
factor, whether at the macroeconomic dynamic level or for
behavior studies of consumers and agents. It is somewhat
linked to the notion of information management at the territory level [2]. Territories, seen as geographical units of the
economic system, have complex economic development
processes [60]. Finding the right information, with sufficient quality and at the right scale, highlights the organization setup needed to acquire this information, manage it,
and exploit it within a sphere of the territorial decision, thus
modernizing the territorial economy and implementation
effectiveness [8], [50]. Smart cities are one recent example
of how this technology can support the emergence of innovation within the management of smart territories [62]. In
this context, the informational asset according to the geographical scale contributes to the economic development of
territories [55] and reduces the disparities between rural and
urban areas [56]. At the economic level, these institutional
changes may generate employment opportunities within
governance systems and digital companies for developers of
new information products, according to the logic of a twosided market [26].
FROM IMAGE-BASED TO DATA-STREAM MODELS
Finally, it remains important to highlight the general evolution from a traditional satellite-image-based market strategy
(the 60 # 60 km2 acquisition attempts) to new data-stream
models (i.e., what you use determines what you pay). In the
basic model, the surface covered may be larger but with a
lower price, whereas payment in a data-stream model relies
on the " useful square kilometers " acquired, depending on the
area defined as useful for the user. However, the price in the
second case is higher, and the covered surface is limited to a
defined area.
Despite this evolution, pooling mechanisms could be still
applicable. All of the pixels purchased through a data-stream
flow could also be integrated into a pooling service, allowing
collective use of the data stream already bought from the initial suppliers. Similarly, commercial prices for collective data
flow may be applied, as in the case of individual data-stream
pooling logic. These new models have yet to prove their usefulness economically and their ability to meet users' needs.
In any case, it is likely that these new models will be more
effective with the public if, in the context of an ecosystem of
innovation, they succeed in shaping a structured community
where members pool their budgetary resources and competences, rather than having a set of isolated users accompanied
individually [52]. Hence, new models of public-private cooperation are also likely to emerge as value chains become
increasingly reorganized around added-value products and
services. Such models, developed at the European and international levels, will constitute a new opportunity in the satellite-imagery field.
19



IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - December 2020

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