IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - December 2022 - 92

by humankind today. We conclude with some observations
and recommendations for various AI4EO stakeholders and
for possible future directions in AI4EO research.
UNDERSTANDING ETHICS: ISSUES, RISKS,
THEORIES, AND OPPORTUNITIES
ETHICS
The term ethics has been defined from numerous perspectives
(e.g., philosophical, anthropological, historical, economic,
political, and social) in existing academic and scientific
literature [11]. At the most fundamental level, ethics
deals with issues of right and wrong, good and bad. As a
discipline, ethics is partially preoccupied with identifying
and finding ways of resolving values that come into conflict
in various contexts of human life, including scientific and
academic research [12].
Ethics is also about emphasizing constructive and " appropriate
conduct associated with " basic human " values, " such
as honesty, responsibility, and so on, and not merely about
" discover(ing) inappropriate conduct " [13], [14], [15]. Accordingly,
some understand ethics to be about identifying a
broad set of desirable duties and (un)desirable consequences
[16]. Together, these are expected to provide a framework to
understand and avoid negative and harmful human actions,
interactions, and consequences, on the one hand, and, perhaps
more importantly, explore, guide, and/or facilitate positive
and constructive human actions and interactions, on the
other hand. Within this broad understanding of ethics that
is considered by some scholars to be context or even culture
specific (so-called " ethical relativism " [17]), several scholars
are of the view that there exists an objective universally applicable
set of human values [18], [19] and responsibilities [20]
that are fundamental to what makes us " human. " These values
are cherished independently of culture and context, and
accordingly, all human actions (and inaction) must be based,
or build on, these fundamental values. For example, the most
fundamental principle of ethics is the so-called golden rule
( " don't do to others what you wouldn't want others to do
to you " [21]) and three associated values, namely, honesty,
integrity, and fairness [13], [22]. Together with other basic
human values, such as responsibility and respect for human
rights, these principles lie at the heart of all (business) ethics
discourses and theories. [13].
ETHICAL RISKS, ETHICAL ISSUES,
AND ETHICAL DILEMMAS
ETHICAL RISKS
Ethical risks are, simply put, the most likely and predictable
negative consequences of any action or inaction. Accordingly,
actions and inactions that are highly likely to yield
negative and undesirable consequences are labeled as unethical.
(Note: Ethical risks must be distinguished from the
emerging field of " risk ethics " that debates whether and in
what circumstances it may be ethically justifiable to take a
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risk, e.g., a calculated risk in business. For an overview of
risk ethics, see [23] and [24].)
ETHICAL ISSUES
Unlike the term ethics, the term ethical issue has not been
widely defined in academic literature. Nonetheless, this term,
which is commonly used in literature dealing with ethics, is
arguably self-explanatory. For a fundamental understanding,
it is useful to look at the basic definitions of the terms ethical
and issue. According to the Collins English Dictionary, " ethical
means relating to questions of right and wrong, " and " an
issue is an important subject that people are arguing about or
discussing. " Put together, ethical issues can be understood as
issues relating to questions of right and wrong (or good and
bad) that are being debated and discussed by people, including
scientific and academic researchers.
The previously mentioned idea of " ethical relativism "
comes starkly into play when we attempt to identify and
define ethical issues. By definition, issues, whether they are
linked to ethics, law, economics, natural sciences, society, or
politics, are subject to debate and diverse views. This is not
least because priorities (and, therefore, considerations) that
go into determining what is right, wrong, good, and bad, can
vary from person to person, from context to context, from
culture to culture, and depending on the perspective and desired
end result from which one views any situation.
Indeed, even within established fields of academic research,
ethical issues are not uncommon. For example, in
the sphere of medical research, while the collection and
analysis of data can help gain a better understanding of a
disease and make more accurate diagnoses, the process can
also raise ethical issues linked to patient privacy: the ethical
issue here is, should we give primary importance to data
protection to secure patient privacy (the " ethical concern/
risk " ) or to understanding and curing diseases more efficiently
(the " ethical opportunity " )? Here, one can see that
" ethical opportunities " can be the flip side of " ethical concerns/risks, "
which together can lead to an " ethical issue. "
Ethical issues can also arise at a more fundamental level.
For example, while stem cell research has several known
and potential (medical) benefits, it is considered by many
to be fundamentally unethical [25], [26], [27], as it violates
cultural and religious sentiments and, according to a few
thinkers, the sanctity of life. It is therefore fair to say that
ethical issues arise from a very fundamental and even legitimate
space of conflicting values. These conflicting values
can take the shape of conflicting understanding of desirable
and undesirable goals, approaches, and end results.
They can also arise in relation to the benefit that may result
(for an individual or for society as a whole) from the pursuit
of these goals and approaches, weighed against their
impact and consequences on the lives of those who were
not involved in the decision to pursue these goals. It is also
possible that the same individual or community can, at the
same time, stand to gain from an ethical opportunity while
losing from the corresponding ethical concern/risk.
IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING MAGAZINE DECEMBER 2022
IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - December 2022

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