IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - June 2019 - 110
concentration and mixing portion). The model is solved in
three steps: 1) atmospheric compensation, 2) temperature
and emissivity separation, and 3) chemical background subtraction. Nevertheless, many operational algorithms will
detect the chemical plume in the scene using radiometric
transmission at the sensor level. Only after detection is the
atmosphere removed and the radiances at the ground separated into temperature and emissivity using dedicated algorithms [58]. The obtained emissivity spectra are compared
and identified using spectral libraries.
In Figure 9, we show the detection of SO2 from two chimneys at a petrochemical site in Antwerp, Belgium. The hyperspectral sensor scans the area of interest in the spectral region
of 0.4 to 14 μm and with a spatial resolution of 2 m. Because
SO2 has two fundamental absorption features in the 8.58-
8.82-µm range, detection that used a clutter-matched filter
[18] was applied in the segmented wavelength of 8-14 µm.
Specifically, a generalized LRT [59] was applied using the atsensor radiance, and a Gaussian dispersion and linear models
were used to further evaluate the concentration of chemicals
along the plume from a stack at an altitude of 292 m.
DETECTING LANDMINES
When referring to the detection of landmines, the literature distinguishes between surface and buried landmines.
In the case of the former, efforts to detect the device using
HSI in the reflective domain have achieved only limited
(a)
success. A project that assessed the capacity of multiple
optical sensors to detect surface-laid mines [59] found that
HSI is an encouraging technique for automatically detecting and recognizing exposed and semihidden mines when
a priori knowledge of the target spectral signature is available. However, the detection performance is limited in unknown scenes as well as when targets are camouflaged by
natural vegetation or hidden under other objects. In VNIR
(i.e., 0.4-1 µm), spatial resolution of the image affects the
performance of the detection algorithm [60]. As the pixel
size gets closer to the size of the device, the likelihood of
isolating the landmine from its background increases. In
SWIR bands, the spectral resolution affects the performance of the detection algorithm. Because the spectrum is
wider, the possibility of distinguishing the landmine from
its background is increased [61].
Spectral-based detection of buried landmines identifies
disturbed soil or stressed vegetation as a result of the occluding (i.e., burying) of the device, not the device itself.
After the landmine is buried in bare soil, the placement or
presence of the device changes the particle size, texture, or
moisture of a small region around it [62]. In VNIR, there is
no significant difference between the signatures of buried
landmines and their backgrounds; however, buried landmines could be indirectly detected by observing differences in reflectance between the compact soil over mines
and backgrounds [63]. It was observed that antitank surrogates were more detectable than antipersonnel surrogates,
presumably because of the increased area of disturbance
required to bury the former [64]. The ability of classifiers
to separate occluded coatings from backgrounds improves
when the VNIR and SWIR spectra are combined [63]. Studies have also shown that, if there is an undetonated landmine buried in the ground beside a plant for a lengthy period of time, the explosive compounds could leak into the
environment and ultimately contaminate the plant. This
contamination will affect the physiology or functioning of
the plant and, consequently, its spectrum [65], [66]. In [67],
the effects of natural environmental stress (e.g., drought
and salinity) and other environmental stress (e.g., exposure
to RDX and TNT) on plant physiology are studied. This
400
0
100 m
(b)
0
5
7
10
18
(c)
FIGURE 9. (a) An AHS-160 scene of the petrochemical port in
Antwerp, Belgium, (b) the detection results of SO2 plumes from
two chimneys of interest superimposed on a principal component
analysis image, and (c) a concentrate map of the detected SO2
using a Gaussian dispersion model.
110
Emissivity
mmg/m3
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
7.9
Undisturbed Soil
Disturbed Soil
8.4
8.9 9.4
9.9 10.4 10.9 11.4
Wavelength (µm)
FIGURE 10. The average derived emissivity curves for disturbed
and undisturbed soil [73].
IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING MAGAZINE
JUNE 2019
IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - June 2019
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