IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - March 2022 - 233
THE SMOS AND SMAP MISSIONS
SMAP is a NASA mission developed within the Earth System
Science Pathfinder program. Its goal is to measure and
collect soil moisture data with global coverage in a short
revisit time, helping scientists to monitor and characterize
the relationship between soil moisture and its freeze/
thaw state as well as their effects on the global ecosystem
[32]. Similarly, SMOS was proposed to the Earth Explorer
Opportunity missions issued by the European Space Agency
(ESA) in 1998, with the aim of providing scientists with
information about soil moisture and SSS on a global scale
[33]. These data are vital for predicting environmental hazards,
such as droughts, floods, and bush fires, as well as
improving agricultural activities, such as crop planning, by
providing information on water availability and environmental
stress [17].
The SMAP instrument featured a conically scanning realaperture
antenna with a combined polarimetric L-band radar
and radiometer and is hence known as an active/passive mission.
However, the radar stopped working in July 2015 due to
the malfunctioning of its high-power amplifier [44]. In contrast,
the SMOS mission has a 2D synthetic aperture L-band
radiometer [the Microwave Imaging Radiometer by Aperture
Synthesis (MIRAS)] operating within the protected band
(1,400-1,427 MHz) [17], [33].
A fixed-angle, real-aperture antenna, like the one used
in SMAP, requires scanning either electrically or mechanically
to cover a wide swath, which is essential to meet the revisit
time requirement. Alternatively, multiangular or multibeam
antennas (obtained from either signal processing
techniques, such as the aperture-synthesis [33]-[35] and
digital beam-forming (DBF) techniques [36], or complex
real-aperture antenna systems [34]) allow simultaneous
observations of multiple footprints at different incidence
angles covering a wide swath [34], [35]. Hence, scanning is
not necessary in such systems. Since both horizontal (H)and
vertical (V)-polarized waves can be observed by the
SMAP and SMOS instruments, the four Stokes parameters
can be derived. The scientific requirements of SMAP and
SMOS can be viewed in Table 1.
ANTENNAS
The antenna used for the SMAP instrument is an offsetfed,
deployable parabolic reflector antenna that has the
capability of receiving and transmitting both H- and
V-polarized electromagnetic waves [37]. The reflector boom
assembly (RBA) is mechanically rotated around the vertical
axis to change the field of view (FOV). This gives the SMAP
instrument the ability to scan a wide area while it is orbiting
Earth. Due to the resolution requirements, a relatively large
antenna must be used. Consequently, the RBA has a diameter
of 6 m and is shared by both the radar and radiometer.
Beam efficiency, reflector surface emissivity, and temperature
are the main drivers for the antenna to achieve accurate
radiometric measurement results [37].
In contrast, the SMOS instrument known as MIRAS uti0
875m along
lizes 69 antenna elements equally spaced (.
)
Y-shaped arms for its antenna system [17], [41]. This antenna
configuration grants MIRAS the ability to capture
brightness temperature maps from Earth over a range of
incidence angles (0-55°) across a swath of approximately
1,000 km with a spatial resolution of 35-50 km [41] (Table 2).
The aperture-synthesis approach relaxes the stringent requirements
on the performance of the antennas, but the
system sensitivity is reduced by a factor of approximately
1.5-2 (depending on the aperture-synthesis configuration)
as compared to those of real-aperture radiometers [42]. The
key parameters of the SMAP and SMOS antenna elements
are summarized in Table 3.
RFI MITIGATION
Since the SMAP and SMOS instruments measure the brightness
temperature over land areas, they are prone to heavy
interference from radio activities [43]-[45]. Even though
the radiometer is operating within the strictly protected
band (1,400-1,427 MHz) for a scientific space observatory,
TABLE 1. THE SMAP AND SMOS SCIENTIFIC REQUIREMENTS, BASED ON [17] AND [38].
PARAMETER
SMAP
Accuracy
Soil moisture: ±0.04 m3 · m-3 volumetric accuracy in the top 2-5 cm
for vegetation water content of <5 kg · m-2
Freeze/thaw state: capture the freeze/thaw state transitions in an integrated
vegetation-soil continuum with two-day precision at the spatial scale of
landscape variability (~3 km)*
Spatial resolution
Revisit time
Hydrometeorology: ~10 km
Hydroclimatology: ~40 km
Sample diurnal cycle at consistent time of day (6 and 18 h)
Global: ~three-day revisit
Boreal: ~two-day revisit
km [39], [40].
**pss-78 is a salinity unit according to the Practical Salinity Scale of 1978 [17].
MARCH 2022 IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING MAGAZINE
233
SMOS
Soil moisture: ±0.04 m3 · m-3 volumetric
accuracy
Vegetation water content: 0.1 kg · m-2
SSS: 0.1-0.2 pss-78**
Soil moisture: <50 km
Vegetation water content: <50 km
SSS: 100-200 km
Soil moisture:
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