IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - September 2023 - 76

relative volume of corresponding benchmark datasets and
illustrates a wide spread of dataset sizes. Here, we present
two examples: SEN12MS (focusing on medium-resolution
satellite data and weak annotations) and the ISPRS Vaihingen
dataset (focusing on very high-resolution airborne data
with high-quality annotations).
1) SEN12MS [49] is among the most popular and largest
datasets (Table 2; 312) in terms of volume of data
as shown in Figure 1. A total of 541,986 image patches
of size 256 × 256 pixels with high spectral information
content is present in this dataset [16]. It contains dualpolarimetric
SAR image patches from Sentinel-1, multispectral
image patches from Sentinel-2, and ModerateResolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land
cover maps (Figure 9). The image patches are acquired
at random locations around the globe and cover the four
meteorological seasons of the Northern Hemisphere.
The patches were further processed to ensure that the
images did not contain any clouds, shadows, and artifacts.
In addition to the images and the land cover maps,
the results of two baseline convolutional neural network
classifiers (ResNet50 and DenseNet121) are also
discussed to demonstrate the usefulness of the dataset
for land cover applications [17].
(a)
2) ISPRS Vaihingen [18] is the earliest semantic segmentation
dataset used for identifying land cover classes in
aerial images [18], as shown in Figure 1 (Table 2; 220).
This dataset contains a subset of images acquired by
aerial cameras during the test of digital aerial cameras
carried out by the German Association of Photogrammetry
and Remote Sensing [19]. The dataset was prepared
as part of a 2D semantic labeling contest organized by
the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing (ISPRS). The dataset contains images acquired
over the city of Vaihingen in Germany. In total,
orthorectified images of varying sizes and a digital surface
model (DSM) are provided for 33 patches covering
Vaihingen (Figure 10). The ground-sampling distance
for the images and DSM is 9 cm. The three channels
of the orthorectified images contain infrared, red, and
green bands as acquired by the camera. The images are
manually labeled for six common land cover classes:
impervious surfaces, buildings, low vegetation, tree, car,
and clutter/background.
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 9. Several patch triplet examples from the SEM12MS
dataset. (a) False-color Sentinel-1 SAR (R: VV; G: VH; B: VV/VH), (b)
Sentinel-2 red, green, blue, (c) Sentinel-2 short-wave infrared, (d)
IGBP land cover, and LCCS land cover.
76
FIGURE 10. An illustration of 33 patches from the ISPRS Vaihingen
dataset. (Source: [18].)
IEEE GEOSCIENCE AND REMOTE SENSING MAGAZINE SEPTEMBER 2023

IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine - September 2023

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