IEEE Solid-States Circuits Magazine - Summer 2023 - 68

(a)
(b)
FIGURE 11: (a) The class-E stage proposed by Sokal and Sokal [21] and (b) its nonoverlapping current and voltage waveforms.
(Red text added for illustration.)
to ensure that the PA transistor dissipates
minimal power.
In 1975, Sokal and Sokal proposed
the class-E PA topology for efficient
switching [21]. As depicted in Figure
11(a), the circuit strives for nonoverlapping
current and voltage
waveforms [Figure 11(b)] and deals
with finite input and output transition
times by proper load design. The
output network is selected such that
VX satisfies three conditions.
1) As the switch turns off, VX remains
low long enough for the current to
drop to zero.
2) VX reaches zero just before the
switch turns on.
3) dV /dtX
is also near zero when
the switch turns on.
The class-E stage achieves a theoretical
efficiency of 100%, a considerable
advantage over other nonlinear
PA topologies. The circuit has been
used extensively [22], [23], [24] [25].
1980: An Integrated DirectConversion
RX Is Reported
Direct-conversion receivers date back to
the 1950s [88] but had faced severe practical
issues. In 1980, Vance described
the RX shown in Figure 12, which was
integrated in an 800-MHz bipolar process
[34]. Targeting FM reception, the
chip consists of quadrature signal paths,
each containing its own LNA, an oscillator
followed by a passive
90 ° phase
shift network, and a dual-modulus
frequency divider. This chip is followed
by external passive channelselect
filters and then by another
chip that performs detection and
further processing.
Vance makes a profound prediction:
" the combination of direct conversion
and large-scale integration
is a very powerful means for future
development of radio receiver techniques. "
Vance also addresses directconversion
issues in great detail and
explains, for example, that 1) differential
RF paths minimize LO leakage
to the antenna, 2) a quadrature phase
error of 10°

IEEE Solid-States Circuits Magazine - Summer 2023

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Solid-States Circuits Magazine - Summer 2023

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