IEEE Solid-States Circuits Magazine - Summer 2023 - 73

1993: The ∆∑ Fractional-N
Synthesizer Is Born
An inflection point occurred in RF
synthesis when Riley et al. introduced
the use of DR modulators for the randomization
and noise shaping of a
synthesizer's feedback divide ratio
[53]. In contrast to previous analogintensive
fractional-N techniques, this
approach offered a robust and elegant
means for fine frequency control (Figure
23). Here, the divider generates an
output frequency given by
ft
d () =
=
N
f
nb ()t
f0
+
FIGURE 23: The DR modulator proposed by Riley et al. [53].
(1)
(2)
where b(t) is a random noise-shaped
stream generated by the DR circuit.
The idea swiftly found its way into
CMOS synthesizer design [54], [55]
[56]. Today's phase-locked loops
(PLLs) must often rely on this concept
so as to achieve a high-frequency resolution
and/or operate with different
crystal frequencies.
Direct Conversion in CMOS
Owing to various issues plaguing
direct conversion [57], [58], early
CMOS RXs were based on the heterodyne
architecture [50], [59], [60],
[61]. Flicker noise in the baseband,
generation of quadrature LO phases
at high frequencies, and LO leakage
to the antenna were among the chief
challenges. In 1997, a 900-MHz directconversion
RX in 0.6-μm CMOS technology
was introduced [62]. Shown
in Figure 24(a), the system includes
an LNA, downconversion mixers,
baseband amplifiers, a 1.8-GHz LC
oscillator, and a 2' stage providing
quadrature LO phases. The design
suppresses the baseband flicker
noise by including a gain of 35 dB in
the LNA and the mixers. As illustrated
in Figure 24(b), the RX front end
applies capacitive coupling between
the mixer's transconductor (M4) and
switching pair (M5 and M6) so as to
allow a greater voltage headroom for
the former and hence improve its linearity.
The RX exhibits an NF of 4 dB, a
voltage gain of 55 dB, and an LO leakage
of −65 dBm.
Direct conversion continued to
flourish, appearing again in 1998 [64]
and in 1999 [65], [63]. Shown in Figure
25 is the 900-MHz transceiver
reported in [63] for cordless phones.
It incorporates channel-selection
LNA
VDD
R1 R2
Vout
L2
L1
Vb
LPF
A1
LNA
VRF
QLO
LPF
A1
(a)
QBB
To Q−Mixer
(b)
FIGURE 24: (a) A direct-conversion CMOS RX from 1997 [62] and (b) its front-end implementation.
IEEE SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS MAGAZINE
SUMMER 2023
73
ILO
2
Osc.
Ib
M3
I−Mixer
IBB
Vin
R1
M1
L3
M2
C1
M7
M8
C2
X
M4
Cp
M5
M6
VLO

IEEE Solid-States Circuits Magazine - Summer 2023

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