IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - December 2022 - 33

in Figure 6, while one human subject performs a similar
task (blue) in cooperation with the robot under the V
and VP methods, respectively (similar trajectories
of the elbow joint), we find that a large delay exists
between the human and robot when only visual sensing
is involved (dotted red line). In comparison, delays can
be reduced by using our proposed prediction method
(solid red line).
Comparison Between VF Method
and Our Proposed Method
In addition, we compare the VF method and our proposed
method. The experiment has been performed by three
human subjects who are blind to the experiment setups.
They perform the cotransporting task in cooperation with
a robot under VF and our proposed method, respectively.
The elbow joint angle of the human subjects and the robotic
joint angle are recorded in the experimental processes.
As shown in Figure 7, one human subject and robot under
VF/our proposed methods perform the cotransporting
task, and there exist large delays when prediction is not
involved in the VF method. From Table 1, we can see that
the average external torques under our proposed method
are smaller than those under the VF method for all subjects,
which indicates that all human subjects find it easier
to accomplish these tasks under our
proposed method. A detailed statistical
analysis can be seen in Figure 8.
In the figure, the box plot in dark
blue is obtained by the VF method,
and the box plot in light blue is
obtained by our proposed method.
We can see that the maximum forces
and average forces are smaller under
our proposed method.
1.5
2
1
2468 10
Time (s)
(a)
1.5
Comparison Between VP Method
and Our Proposed Method
Finally, we compare the VP method
and our proposed method. The
experimental process is the same as
that in the third experiment. The
experiment has also been performed
by three human subjects. The
MSE MSE =
6
(/ )( )
1 n k
n
=1
-
h
R ii 2@ is
employed to evaluate the robustness
of our proposed method.
In our experiment, we set the
sampling points to n 500=
. From
Table 2, we can see that the motion
errors under our proposed method

IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - December 2022

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