IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - June 2018 - 93

TE and Quality
Painter technique has a more substantial influence on spraying efficiency than any of the other variables. TE and coat
thickness, known as build efficiency (BE), are two measures
of spraying efficiency and quality. TE is expressed as the
fraction of paint sprayed that adheres to the surface, and it is
crucial to productivity, paint saving, and cost. The maximum TE, A max, is defined by spraying at an optimal distance, d opt, when applying a spray gun normally to the
surface. For most spraying cases, the dependence of the TE,
A, on the inclination angle θ, and distance, d, can be
expressed [20] by
A ^i, d h = c # A max = A max ;1 - q

d - d opt
E cos m i,
d

where i is an angle between the normal vector to the surface
and the ray connecting the gun tip and the target point.
Accordingly, the efficiency decreases with the increase in i
and d, while the rate of efficiency decrease is dependent on
two experimental parameters, m = 0.5 and q = 0.5. The influence of Pictobot deployment on spraying efficiency is
as follows.
● The experiments demonstrate that Pictobot ensures low
error in the gun-to-target distance, d avg = 31.5 cm, in
which another rangefinder was attached in close proximity
to the spray gun and implemented for directly measuring
the distance along 50 strokes without performing a spraying operation, while the robot was deployed from various
positions. The inclination angle is also approximated as
the mean slope of the distance changes i avg = 2 deg along
the strokes. Accordingly, (3) implies an average TE rate
A Pictobot = 0.975A max close to the maximum TE achievable
by that sprayer. However, it is nearly impossible to maintain a fixed distance in the manual spraying of tall walls.
Although measuring the applied distance by a human
painter, along with spraying operation is not feasible, our
observations and evaluations provided by expert feedback
suggest an average distance of 60 cm, while the maximum distance varies up to more than 1 m depending on working
condition, human skill, and fatigue. Thus, approximating the
average distance, davg, as 55, 60, or 65 cm, and i avg = 15c,
the corresponding average TE, A MS, will be 0.766A max,
0.737A max and 0.708A max, respectively.
● Based on (2), constant gun-to-target distance and spray
angle lead to even film thickness. Moreover, for each spray
stroke, a consistent travel speed, 0.25 m/s, is achieved after
acceleration, as indicated in Figure 8(b). The paint distribution is kept consistent by the controlled triggering of the
spray gun immediately after acceleration and before deceleration. Keeping the BE constant across whole surfaces is
as important as ensuring a good TE rate. TE is not affected
significantly by the changes in speed.
● The automatic spraying process greatly reduces worker
fatigue caused by holding the spray gun in the desired position. The operator's attitude and skill in teleoperation have
some effects on the overall working time of the system, but

the visual and range data feedbacks could reduce the reliance on the operator skill.
Current Challenges, Future Works
The current configuration of using passive caster wheels prevents the operator from teleoperating the mobile base to
the desired workplaces
effortlessly. Deploying an
omnidirectional mobile
The full deployment of
base could reduce the time
and effort associated with
human-Pictobot could meet
teleoperated robot movements b et we en work the real-life challenges of
stations. Implementing a
robotic arm with a larger
improving sustainability,
workspace will increase
the size of each painted
productivity, quality,
patch, which leads to
fewer base movements
and safety of interior
and higher productivity.
More data and alarm feedfinishing services, as well
backs representing the
various status of subsysas the fostering a robotics
tems could be provided to
the on-screen display for
industry and an ecosystem
assisting the operator as
well as additional autonothat will transform
my features, e.g., wall following. Furthermore, we
construction into a modern
are planning more field
experiments through colproduction system.
laborations with construction contractors to
schedule and deploy the robot at industrial developments,
and to collect more data on its operation and performance.
While autonomous navigation in a changing environment, such as a building under construction, is limited by
many practical constraints, it will open other research opportunities in combined task and motion planning. Thus, future
work would focus on study of a coordinated motion planning of the mobile base and the articulated manipulator for a
painting task. If extra information, such as a building information model is available, it could also be used for preplanning purposes.
Conclusions
A robotic painter is presented in this article for interior finishing of industrial buildings, which provides a way to combine
the benefits of human ingenuity with those of automation in
construction. The Pictobot and human work collaboratively,
wherein the worker's judgment and perception becomes the
upper robot planner, and the robot will adjust the painting
plans autonomously from various deployed positions. The Pictobot works safely in close proximity to a worker performing
the repetitive painting process at high elevations. Unlike the
conventional paint robots that implement CAD model-based
june 2018

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IEEE ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION MAGAZINE

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IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - June 2018

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