IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - June 2019 - 83

needed. At each iteration, the target stimulus (e.g., the question) is given with the prompt for the current level. The
response is evaluated after the response interval, i.e., the constant amount of time before and after each prompt elapses. A
correct response is reinforced; an incorrect response results in
an escalation of the prompt level and another iteration.
The goal of SLP is that, after sufficient repetitions, students
require fewer prompts and eventually respond correctly
before any prompt is delivered. As the student answers correctly at lower prompt levels, a process of self-fading occurs,
where the student's answers determine the rate at which the
intrusiveness is decreased.
We note here that the occupational therapy technique of
graded cueing has been previously used successfully for imitation games in therapy for people with autism [19] and is similar to the SLP subtype.

Prerequisites

SMP
SMP is very similar to SLP except that, in SMP, the hierarchy
of prompts is arranged from most to least intrusive. The hierarchy of prompts is traversed iteratively in decreasing order of
intrusiveness. As with SLP, a constant response interval is
used, and reinforcement is provided for correct answers.
When an incorrect response is given, the prompt level is escalated, as with SLP.
The underlying idea for the SMP approach is to guarantee that the student first makes a successful response (via the
controlling prompt) and then to fade the intrusiveness of the
prompt and work toward fully independent behavior. One
observed difference between SMP and SLP is that, with
SMP, it is highly likely that the entire prompt hierarchy is
traversed for each instruction. This could make the time
expended for each instruction longer; however, because the

Zero-Second Trial

Stimulus and
Prompt Sequence

Trial Steps:

Consequences/
Reinforcements

Yes

Student's Patience
Estimate

Correct
Response?

1) Secure Student's
Attention
2) Present Stimulus
3) Wait Delay
Interval
4) Present Controlling
Prompt

No

Error Consequence

Reinforcement

Delay Interval

All Trials
Complete?

No

Yes
CTD Trial

Yes

Error
Before
Prompt?

Yes
Preprompt
Reinforcement (Counts
Towards Criterion)

Next Task

Correct
Response?

No

Error
Before
Prompt?

Yes

Postprompt
Reinforcement

Yes

No

Postprompt Error
Consequence

Preprompt Error
Consequence

At
Criterion?

No

Figure 5. A flowchart CTD response-prompting strategy, adapted from [17]. Note that CTD has only one prompt, the controlling
prompt, and the time interval is varied (see the "CTD" section).

JUNE 2019

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IEEE ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION MAGAZINE

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IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - June 2019

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - June 2019

Contents
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