IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - September 2023 - 38

in foggy environments, allowing them to be used on any autonomous
robotic platform operating outdoors, or even in disasterprone
environments. The 3D mechanical lidar, as seen in VLP-16
and Ouster OS-1 used for the experiment, showed superior performance
with respect to angle and distance accuracy and environmental
robustness, compared to other sensors. However,
because of its relatively high price, size, and weight, it may not be
a suitable choice for lightweight and small-sized products or costeffective
applications. Meanwhile, 2D mechanical lidar systems
such as RPLIDAR-A2 possess the advantages of sufficient distance
accuracy and environmental robustness for object detection
and mapping, in addition to affordable and lightweight implementation.
However, as only horizontal information is available,
its application may be limited. Nevertheless, 2D mechanical lidar
sensors are commonly used for mapping indoor environments,
where the elevation is constant, or for extracting characteristic
information with respect to walls and edges.
Solid-state lidars possess lower measurement accuracy
and greater noise than mechanical lidars in experiments that
Experimental Setting
detect thin objects. They additionally tend to be easily vulnerable
to foggy environments. These properties are observed
because solid-state lidar sensors illuminate an entire scene
when collecting data by depressing the laser beam, generating
distance data that are evenly distributed in the form of
pixels. As they have a narrow FoV, they are suitable for applications
that require uniform depth data of the scene, rather
than applications such as mapping in a wide area. Additionally,
as there are no internal rotating parts, solid-state lidar
sensors are durable and can thus be used for long periods
without wear and tear. As observed in the " Mapping " section,
MEMS-LIDAR systems such as CE30-D could generate
a 2D map in a narrow space that is covered through a 60° FoV.
Therefore, they can be utilized in mapping or localization in
the narrow or small spaces of factories, buildings, and residences.
In contrast, flash lidar sensors, as observed in HPS3D160,
could not be used for generating a map, because of
their limited number of horizontal pixels. However, they can
be used to recognize thin objects with a sufficient number of
Visible From
Visible From 5 m Away
Visible From 2.5 m Away
Less Than 2.5 m Away
7.5 m
2.5 m
5 m
First
Round
Ground Truth
Second
Round
Ground Truth
FIGURE 7. LIO results in a foggy environment. The maps, scanning data, and moving trajectories are shown in white, blue, and yellow,
respectively.
38 IEEE ROBOTICS & AUTOMATION MAGAZINE SEPTEMBER 2023

IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - September 2023

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine - September 2023

Contents
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