Signal Processing - May 2017 - 70

the demographics of the current workforce. In 2014, there were 1,680,854 engineers in the United States, of whom
12.9% were women, 3.6% were African
American, and 8.3% were Hispanic [11].
Disparities in engineering interest develop
before college, with 14.5% high school
men and just 2.5% of high school women
intending to major in engineering [14].
Students entering higher education to
study engineering need to be prepared differently, and it is essential that more
diverse populations are attracted to and
retained in the field [15].

Issues in K-12 STEM education
Intrinsic to the shortage of engineering
talent is a lack of tradition of engineering education in K-12 schools [16],
[17]. This has been manifested in current
policies and existing science and mathematics curricula, inadequate teacher
preparation, and limited resources for
providing appropriate student guidance.
There has been much discussion about
the inclusion of engineering in K-12
classrooms and disjointed state efforts to
do so [18], [19], yet research into STEM
integration has not kept pace with changes in policy [20]. New York State, for
example, has no distinct K-12 teacher
certification in engineering and does not
allow engineering coursework to meet
licensing requirements. New York State
is not prepared to meet the incorporation
of engineering content and practices
necessitated when the NGSS are fully
adopted [21]. These standards originated
in the U.S. National Research Council's
Framework for K-12 Science Education
[22], which recommended curricula that
incorporate cross-cutting concepts, scientific practices, and disciplinary core
ideas. With most states moving forward
on the adoption of the NGSS, school districts will be required to provide engineering experiences embedded within
traditional science, mathematics, and
technology curricula.

K-12 STEM teachers and the need
for professional development
Current science and mathematics teachers will require significant professional
development to incorporate engineering
knowledge and design principles in their
70

classroom teaching. Most science teachers are unfamiliar with engineering practices, lack confidence in teaching design
principles, and have an inaccurate understanding of the skills and training required
for engineering careers [23], [24]. Limited resources are currently available to
help them overcome these restrictions
[20]. Research-based principles provide a
compelling model for effective professional development supporting effective
NGSS implementation, which complements the goals of ASEE [25], [26]. Inservice teacher professional development
is necessary to facilitate meaningful integration of science content and engineering design.
Purzer et al. proposed that teacher professional development should emphasize
evidence-based decision making through
collaborations with science and engineering education researchers. New curricula should be developed that integrate
science content and engineering practices; teachers should encourage critical
thinking and the development of literacy skills with the aid of formative
assessments [25]. Stereotypical contexts should be avoided (e.g., building
fast cars) to reduce inequitable practices
in engineering education and encourage
diverse participation in engineering
careers [27]. A related STEM knowledge
integration model suggests that students
should learn diverse ideas about science
and engineering, develop evaluative criteria, and test their ideas by collecting
evidence [28].
In Bell and Gilbert's model of effective professional development [29],
successful teachers express a desire to
improve their practice, reflect critically
on their pedagogy, integrate new ideas,
and become empowered to implement
new strategies and inspire others
through collaboration. Frequent opportunities for interactions with colleagues
and mentors contribute to curricular
reform efforts [30]. Theoretical support
is further evidenced by research suggesting professional development
should be sustained over time [31],
[32]. Effective training programs typically require 50-80 hours of instruction
in authentic settings before significant
treatment effects are evident [33], [34].
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine

May 2017

School counselors and the
need for STEM training
The need for school guidance personnel
trained in appropriate precollege academic preparation for engineering study is
acute. Many high school students depend
on the advice of counselors in choosing
elective coursework and deciding where
to send college applications. Counselors
often have final decision-making authority on which courses a student will take.
Engineering is a discipline where gateway precollege STEM coursework determines access to and success in the
college major [35], [36]. Counselors and
science teachers have been highly influential in encouraging students to pursue
STEM-related careers, particularly those
whose parents cannot advise on necessary choices [37], [38]. Access to highquality STEM counseling is typically
limited for underresourced schools [39],
where students may be dissuaded from
pursuing advanced science and mathematics in ill-conceived efforts to prioritize graduation rates [40]. Also,
engineering is often viewed by counselors and teachers as a course of study for
the academic elite, which further diminishes encouragement [24].
Underresourced student guidance has
had a dramatic impact on the preparation
of high needs students to pursue engineering. Just 4% of underrepresented students have taken the mathematics and
science courses required for admission to
the majority of engineering schools [41].
Each successive level of mathematics
and science course-taking has been associated with an 8.2% increase in the likelihood of declaring a STEM major [42].
Coursework in physics and calculus is
particularly significant [43]. Research has
suggested that providing support and
training school counselors regarding the
value of STEM coursework will have a
positive impact on students' STEM performance, course choices, and awareness
of STEM careers [44], [45]. Counselors
are well positioned to manage the alignment between students' career expectations and curricular decisions [46]. More
work needs to be done with school professionals in the position to educate high
school students on the challenges and
rewards of engineering study.

Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of Signal Processing - May 2017