IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Magazine - January 2022 - Cover3

sentiment about the optimistically short amount of time
ground control scheduled for daily tasks [21].
There was a critical process and procedure failure during
the fire aboard Mir. That day, the crew received only one
evacuation trajectory for its return to Earth but realized it
required separate courses for the two Soyuz capsules,
which might have collided on arrival at the same landing
coordinates. Fortunately, members were able to quickly
contain the fire, with each using diverse skills to manage
the emergency [9]. Civilians experiencing hardships will
likely create processes within groups or have directions
relayed to them by first responders. Through time, these
procedures will become critical to their survival.
Third Pillar: Optimization by Ground
Control and Mission Control
Ground control is the point of contact for space crews and
are equipped to support astronauts who have the right stuff
[2]. Many catastrophes have been avoided because of
ground control's experience, such as a 1983 emergency
Soyuz takeoff abort, which was triggered by a nearby
command bunker. Additionally, Apollo 12, Apollo 13, and
launch 61F missions show that ground crew training and
teamwork are critical for averting disasters. The balance
of optimization between crew cohesion and ground support
is interchangeable. In space, the only thing between
an astronaut and a fatal move is fellow crew members.
Therefore, mission directors favor crew cohesion even if
ground control has to play the role of the common enemy
[15]. Regardless, there is a bond between ground and
space crews that is based on trust: astronauts place their
lives in mission control's hands. During the return of
Friendship 7, John Glenn suspected that the heat shield
did not deploy during reentry, but his instincts were contradicted
by the ground crew's telemetry [9]. His ability to
sit tight displayed not only the right stuff but also that he
was prepared to trust and take instructions from the
ground crew.
Ground control during the Apollo 13 emergency received
support from astronauts who ran simulators for up to 40 h
each to recreate the situation. This enabled the ground crew
to test solutions before relaying them to the spacecraft's
crew. Tony England, an astronaut at ground control, displayed
creative potential by devising a do-it-yourself solution
for air purification using plastic bags, tape, cardboard
cue cards, and EVA suits [9]. The role of mission control is
one of versatility. When the lunar module returned to the
service module during the Apollo 14 mission, the latches
failed to engage, and astronaut Alan Shepherd suggested an
emergency EVA, which would have had to be performed
while both vehicles were flying in formation around the
Moon. With the lunar module running out of fuel, ground
control inspected replicas of both craft and advised that the
locking mechanism might have required more force to
engage. Another attempt to join the modules was successful,
and the astronauts avoided possibly the most dangerous
EVA in history [9]. First responders who assist civilians during
natural disasters and wars can function well because
they do not experience an event's trauma. Similarly, ground
control members solve problems effectively because they
do not have to combat the effects of space.
Fourth Pillar: Optimization by Using Technology
This pillar involves " space habitability, " which encompasses
factors that enable astronauts to live and work, including
" communications, crew interfaces, displays, environmental
conditions, emergency, EVA gear, lighting, and maintenance "
[13]. A technical malfunction caused the fire aboard Mir. The
next crew to arrive at the space station suffered a collision
when a cargo module's braking mechanism malfunctioned
during docking. The processes and procedures in place at the
time were inadequate by today's standards [9], and two pillars
failed that day, causing Mir to be impacted by 15 times the
intended force [9]. This caused slow depressurization, posing
an imminent threat. Fortunately, the crew quickly sealed the
holes and spent the next eight weeks performing extensive
repairs. Michael Foale, the only American astronaut aboard,
with two Russian cosmonauts, displayed multiple instances
of creative potential. He earned the trust of his comrades by
devising a plan to use Soyuz retro rockets to reposition solar
panels to power the station's systems. This came to be known
to Russian ground control as " Michael's solution " and was
referred to as such. The solution came in handy a second
time when an emergency EVA caused a cable to be cut [9].
Psychosocial incidents related to multicultural crews have
been recorded, with five rated " high impact " and effecting
missions [13]. Foale goes down in history for gaining acceptance
within a Russian team that considered him " one of
their own. " It is possible that the Mir emergency caused the
crew to become more cohesive and high functioning to survive
[15]. Crews that perform successfully develop resilience.
" As team members practice team skills doing the task, it
increases confidence in both abilities and team cohesion
which goes onto resulting in consistently high performing
teams " [2]. The technology pillar is often the weakest and
requires constant maintenance. Often, its breakdown causes
critical events, but in reality, space travel would not be possible
without technology [13].
Discussion and Conclusion
As Benjamin Franklin aptly put it in his famous quote
" nothing ventured, nothing gained, " astronaut and cosmonaut
crews with the right stuff embark on their mission
knowing they are supported by technology, ground crews,
and training manuals full of procedures. The isolated and
confined environment of space is a pressure cooker for emotions.
Some crew members have military backgrounds [1]
with training to respond to processes and procedures while
keeping emotions in check. A future investigation should
evaluate whether civilian crews' ability to creatively solve
problems in extreme conditions has to do with the right stuff
or with elements of members' professional training.
IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Magazine - January 2022

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