IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 56
the Internet is a simple fact of life. We
take for granted the invisible network
that enables us to communicate, navigate,
investigate, flirt, shop, and play. Early on,
this network-of-networks connected only
select companies and university campuses.
Nowadays, it follows almost all of us into
the most intimate areas of our lives. And
yet, very few people know how the Internet
became social. ¶ Perhaps that's because
most histories of the Internet focus on
technical innovations: packet switching,
dynamic routing, addressing, and hypertext,
for example. But when anyone other
than a network engineer talks about the
Internet, he or she is rarely thinking about
such things. For most folks, the Internet is
principally a medium through which we
chat with friends, share pictures, read the
news, and do our shopping. Indeed, for those
who've been online only for the last decade
or so, the Internet is just social media's
plumbing-a vital infrastructure that we
don't think much about, except perhaps
when it breaks down. ¶ To understand how
the Internet became a medium for social
life, you have to widen your view beyond
networking technology and peer into the
makeshift laboratories of microcomputer
hobbyists of the 1970s and 1980s. That's
where many of the technical structures and
cultural practices that we now recognize
as social media were first developed by
amateurs tinkering in their free time to build
systems for computer-mediated collaboration
and communication. ¶ For years before
the Internet became accessible to the
general public, these pioneering computer
enthusiasts chatted and exchanged files with
one another using homespun "bulletin-board
systems" or BBSs, which later linked a more
diverse group of people and covered a wider
range of interests and communities. These
BBS operators blazed trails that would later
56
|
nov 2016
|
north AmericAn
|
SPectrUm.ieee.orG
be paved over in the construction of today's information
superhighway. So it takes some digging to reveal what
came before.
How did it all start? During the snowy winter of
1978, Ward Christensen and Randy Suess, members of the
Chicago Area Computer Hobbyist's Exchange (CACHE), began
to assemble what would become the best known of the first
small-scale BBSs. Members of CACHE were passionate about
microcomputers, at the time an arcane endeavor, and so the
club's newsletters were an invaluable source of information.
Christensen and Suess's novel idea was to put together an
online archive of club newsletters using a custom-built microcomputer and a hot new Hayes modem they had acquired.
This modem included an auto-answer feature, to which
Christensen and Suess added a custom hardware interface
between the modem and the hard-reset switch. Every time the
telephone rang, the modem would detect the incoming call
and then "cold boot" their system directly into a special host
program written in Intel 8080 assembly language. Restarting the system with every call offered a blunt but effective
means of recovering from hardware and software crashes-
a common occurrence on home-brew hardware of the time.
Once a connection was established, the host program welcomed users to the system, provided a list of articles to read,
and invited them to leave messages. Christensen and Suess
dubbed the system "Ward and Randy's Computerized Bulletin Board System," or CBBS. It was, as the name suggested,
an electronic version of the community bulletin boards that
you still see in libraries, supermarkets, cafés, and churches.
Anyone with access to a teletype or video terminal could
dial into CBBS. And after a few months, a small but lively community began to form around the system. In the hobbyist tradition of sharing information, Christensen and Suess wrote
up a report about their project titled "Hobbyist Computerized Bulletin Board," which appeared in the November 1978
issue of the influential computer magazine Byte.
The article provided details about the hardware they used
and how they organized and implemented their software. The
authors even included their phone numbers and invited readers to take CBBS for a spin. Acknowledging the experimental
nature of the system, they encouraged readers to "feel free to
hang up and try several times if you have problems." After the
issue hit newsstands, calls to their computer started pouring in.
Over the next few years, hundreds of small-scale systems
like CBBS popped up around the country. Perhaps inspired
by the Byte article, many of these new systems were organized by local computer clubs. In 1983, TAB Books, publisher
of numerous DIY electronics guides, published How to Create
Your Own Computer Bulletin Board, by Lary L. Myers. In addition to explaining the concept and motivation behind online
services, Myers's book included complete source code in the
BASIC programming language for host software. The back
of the book also listed the telephone numbers of more than
275 public bulletin-board systems in 43 U.S. states. Some
charged a nominal membership fee, while most were free to
use. The roots of social media were beginning to take hold.
Previous Pages, Welcome screens: original BBss/Jason scott
For millions of people
around the globe,
http://SPectrUm.ieee.orG
Table of Contents for the Digital Edition of IEEE Spectrum November, 2016
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - Cover1
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - Cover2
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 1
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 2
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 3
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 4
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 5
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 6
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 7
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 8
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 9
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 10
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 11
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 12
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 13
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 14
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 15
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 16
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 17
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 18
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 19
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 20
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 21
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 22
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 23
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 24
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 25
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 26
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 27
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 28
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 29
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 30
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 31
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 32
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 33
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 34
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 35
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 36
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 37
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 38
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 39
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 40
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 41
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 42
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 43
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 44
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 45
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 46
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 47
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 48
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 49
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 50
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 51
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 52
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 53
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 54
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 55
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 56
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 57
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 58
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 59
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 60
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 61
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 62
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 63
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 64
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 65
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 66
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 67
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 68
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 69
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 70
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 71
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 72
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 73
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 74
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 75
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - 76
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - Cover3
IEEE Spectrum November, 2016 - Cover4
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1217
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1117
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1017
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0917
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0817
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0717
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0617
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0517
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0417
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0317
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0217
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0117
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1216
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1116
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1016
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0916
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0816
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0716
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0616
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0516
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0416
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0316
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0216
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0116
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1215
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1115
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1015
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0915
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0815
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0715
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0615
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0515
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0415
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0315
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0215
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0115
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1214
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1114
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1014
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0914
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0814
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0714
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0614
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0514
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0414
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0314
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0214
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0114
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1213
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1113
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1013
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0913
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0813
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0713
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0613
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0513
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0413
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0313
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0213
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0113
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1212
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1112
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1012
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0912
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0812
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0712
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0612
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0512
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0412
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0312
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0212
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0112
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1211
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1111
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1011
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0911
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0811
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0711
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0611
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0511
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0411
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0311
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0211
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0111
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1210
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1110
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1010
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0910
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0810
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0710
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0610
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0510
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0410
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0310
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0210
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0110
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1209
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1109
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1009
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0909
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0809
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0709
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0609
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0509
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0409
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0309
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0209
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0109
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1208
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1108
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1008
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0908
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0808
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0708
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0608
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0508
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0408
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0308
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0208
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0108
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1207
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1107
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_1007
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0907
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0807
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0707
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0607
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0507
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0407
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0307
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0207
https://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/ieee/spectrum_na_0107
https://www.nxtbookmedia.com