IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - December 2020 - 38

the pressure or even the likelihood of a first strike due to
reduced conflict threshold, which might destabilize nuclear deterrence. However, others like Cummings [36] refer
to the advantages of automated systems over humans to
carry out attacks due to the likelihood of human error
under the stressful conditions of combat.
To further the progress of work towards a limitation
of harm, it is important to take a closer look at computer
science and engineering, especially robotics. Linked
publications are frequently interested in the development of semi-autonomous drones [37], [38], machine
learning techniques [39], and human-computer interaction. Often focusing on civilian environments, some
scholars pay special attention to disruptive situations
[40] or warfare technology [41]. Still, many engineering
studies are interested in optimizing automatic or autonomous processes and robotics, disregarding ethical questions or highlighting the potential of LAWS [42]-[45].

Ethically, lethal autonomous weapons
run counter the principle of human
dignity as only humans can be moral
agents that can take life-affecting
decisions and be held accountable.

From the perspective of machine ethics, Canellas
et al. [46] investigate the " mismatch between authority
and responsibility in an exemplar military scenario
[which] can still plague the human-AWS interactions. "
The interaction of the autonomous system with its complex environment during mission-related tasks is another challenge for researchers. Thus Hägele et al. [47]
introduce a real-time environmental situation risk
assessment approach to improve the safe situational
behavior of the autonomous system. Beside the value of
safety, Chmielewski [48] tries to incorporate non-Western values and stresses the need for an ethical evaluation of the use of LAWS, referring to IEEE's " Ethical
Considerations in Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Systems " [49]. Others focus on norm change initiated by countries of the Global South [50] or gendered
perspectives on autonomous weapon systems [51], [52].
The cognitive engineering approach [53] by Canellas
et al. [46] is one of the few works that has analyzed different understandings of MHC and concrete options,
realized in human-computer interaction. The authors
highlight implications for function allocation to

autonomous systems vis à vis human operators, derived
from definitions of MHC [46]. Yet, interested in establishing MHC in warfare human-machine interaction, they
disregard important questions regarding software and
interface design and take a less critical stance by
assuming definitions to be exogeneous.
Value-Sensitive Design (VSD) as a " theoretically
grounded approach to the design of technology " serves
to investigate the discourse on LAWS and thus helps to
fill these gaps [54]. Friedman et al. [54] define values as
" what a person or group of people consider important in
life. " Usually, a VSD design process consists of three
types of investigations: conceptual, empirical, and technical. For this paper, only the conceptual investigation is
of relevance. Such an investigation aims at understanding the interests and conflicts across the stakeholders'
debates within their cultural and strategic contexts [54].
Moreover, it proposes approaches to mitigate conflicts
and prioritize values in trade-off situations. Within the
scope of this study, VSD is thus used to understand the
stakeholders' interests and values towards the control
of autonomous weapon systems. VSD in the context of
autonomous weapons systems has also been used by
Asaro [55], taking important work on autonomy by Cummings [56], [57] into account, referring to her concept of
automation bias and the VSD-study of the cruise missile
Tactical Tomahawk [58]. Thornton et al. [59], de Sio and
van den Hoven [20], as well as Umbrello [19] use the
VSD method on autonomous vehicles and AI, arguing
for human-centered approaches like MHC in civilian
innovation as well. Our analogous approach tries to
grasp challenges of today's discussion of LAWS.
This work is a contribution to the field of IT peace
research [60], [61] as well as natural science/technical
peace research [62], [63]2 and sheds light on technology's normative and social effects in crisis and conflict.
While Verbruggen et al. have dedicated several papers to
autonomous weapon systems, following a more reflective
and open research path [64], this work contributes by
incorporating VSD. So far, only one contribution focusing
on LAWS and VSD exists: Verdiesen asks for moral values
which are important to military personnel and the public,
disregarding the merit for a more critical, deconstructivist
stance [65]-[67]. Finally, this work aims at offering interdisciplinary social scientific approaches, like Pugliese's
[68], and technical perspectives, like Arkin's [42], towards
challenges for international security.
2
As Altmann states, " [n]atural-science/technical research for peace, international security, arms control and disarmament is applied research with
the intention to support the political processes of preventing war, reducing
armament, building confidence and diverting financial and human resources from military to civilian purposes, in particular for solving urgent global
humanitarian problems " . It " is a broad field of research that deals with the
role of natural scientific and technical possibilities in the context of war
and peace, armament and disarmament " [62].

IEEE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY MAGAZINE

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DECEMBER 2020

IEEE Technology and Society Magazine - December 2020

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