Modern Age - Winter 2017 - 93

A EUROPE LOST

Still, relationships between popes and emperors were always
tense; the first wanted protection; the second, God's blessings.
The low point came in 1527, when imperial troops sacked Rome.
The Reformation elevated religious conflict, most famously in the
anti-Catholic Defenestration of Prague in 1618, which sparked
the Thirty Years War. The agreements of 1648 ending the war, the
Peace of Westphalia, have long been touted as replacing Christian imperial rule with our nation-state system. Yet, Wilson notes,
Westphalia "did not remove religion from imperial politics, still
less inaugurate a fully secular international order, but it did signal
the defeat of militant confessionalism," and thus the end of religious wars. It did this, however, by permanently fixing the official
faith of each territory as it had existed in 1624. Rather than attack
faith, the accords took aim at war.
Wilson explains why this might have been important: "Virtually
all the men ruling the Empire before the sixteenth century were
successful warriors, with many of them owing their position to
victory over domestic rivals." And while Wilson focuses on how
the empire was governed, he does not neglect the endemic levels of violence that accompanied this governance. "Armed retaliation through feuds remained a legal way to seek redress under
imperial law," for example, and "considerable violence" could
accompany changes in who was subordinated to whom. Disputes
among princes in the Rhineland destroyed 1,200 villages in one
period.
Despite the military orientation of its rulers, Wilson says, "The
Empire's hierarchy was not a chain of command, but a multilayered
structure allowing individuals and groups to disobey one authority whilst still professing loyalty to another." Identity itself was
multilayered, based on status, which was conferred on groups-
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Modern Age - Winter 2017

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Contents
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Modern Age - Winter 2017 - Contents
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