IEEE Electrification - December 2021 - 5

past decade or so, it has been used for
stationary storage, as well. Automotive
applications for Li-ion technology
are driving a truly historic and massive
scale-up in manufacturing, with
projections of annual production of
>1 TWh/year by 2030. For reference, the
average U.S. power demand is about
450 GW, so a single year's production
of 2 TWh would be enough to timeshift
about 4 h of the entire country's
average electricity consumption.
Because the technical requirements
for Li-ion vehicle applications
are not significantly different than
those for the intraday time shift stationary
application, and the cost targets
for automotive applications also
translate to favorable prices for intraday
time shift stationary applications,
it is clear that there will be
substantial deployment of Li-ion stationary
storage, and, the market has
been growing rapidly in the past
several years. In a case of positive
feedback, recent analysis indicates
that deploying solar and storage
together may increase the market
opportunity for each of those technologies.
Finally, a number of governments
(especially state governments
in the United States) have implemented
storage deployment mandates,
which are serving to spur the
development of stationary storage
industries that will lower the " soft
costs " of project development.
While the challenges presented by
intermittent wind and solar will likely
be economically addressed by Li-ion
(and potentially other storage technologies,
especially for durations in the
range of 6-12 h), there are obviously
time scales of days, weeks, seasons,
and years during which electrical time
shifts may also need to occur. A semiquantitative
estimate of the maximum
required storage duration versus
the annual fraction of intermittent
electricity on a regional grid [e.g., such
as the California Independent System
Operator (CAISO) and Electric Reliability
Council of Texas (ERCOT)] is presented
in Figure 1, drawn from a
publication developed from analysis
that led to the Advanced Research Projects
Agency-Energy program Duration
Addition to Electricity Storage (DAYS).
Depending on the amount of curtailment,
transmission, and grid flexibility
(i.e., demand response), the maximum
required (where required means the
storage duration to ensure that the
load is met at all points in time) storage
duration remains in the intraday region
(i.e., <12 h) up to about 50-70% of the
annual electricity from wind and solar.
The next region in the graph, " Day/
Week, " spanning from approximately
10 to the low hundreds of hours, could
help a grid reach around 90% of its
annual electricity from wind and solar.
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IEEE Electrification Magazine / DECEMBER 2021
2021-11-09 9:30:12 AM
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IEEE Electrification - December 2021

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