IEEE Electrification - June 2019 - 45

1,600

Smart
Charging (V1G)

Unmanaged
Charging

V2G

V2G With AS

Unconstrained
V2G With AS
US$1,380

Real Levelized Cost (US$/Yr/EV)

1,400
1,200
US$1,021

US$1,005

1,000
800
600
400
200
0
-US$92

-200
-400

-US$345
Costs
Net
and
Value
Benefits

Costs
Net
and
Value
Benefits

Costs
Net
and
Value
Benefits

Costs Net
and Value
Benefits

Costs
Net
and Value
Benefits

CO2 Cost
Net Benefit Net Cost ASs RPS Cost
System Energy Cost
Distribution Capacity Transmission Capacity Generation Capacity
Figure 5. The levelized costs and benefits for the high-value scenario under the utility's control. CO2: carbon dioxide.

TABLE 1. A summary of incremental benefits and discharged energy for VGI use

cases (average per vehicle).
Scenario

AS Provided
with V2G?

V1G Versus
Unmanaged (US$)

V2G Versus
V1G (US$)

Energy Discharged
(kWh)

Unconstrained high value

Yes

253

1,472

15,051

High value

Yes

253

1,113

10,225

High value

No

253

1,097

7,969

Base

Yes

154

407

9,454

Base

No

154

337

6,322

Note: The incremental benefits are in terms of the utility's costs and benefits of serving EV charging. The incremental costs associated with equipment and enabling technology are not included
in this calculation.

with significant distribution value, and VGI remains unproven as a reliable resource for distribution planning. We also
see that the small, incremental benefit of providing AS
instead of performing load shifting with V2G may not be
worth the cost of the expensive communications and
equipment necessary to participate in today's AS markets.
When industry is ready to adopt V2G, it must develop new
business models and vehicle warrantees that share these
costs, benefits, and risks of V2G among automakers, vehicle
owners, utilities, and VGI service providers.

Acknowledgments
A portion of this work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, under contract

DE-AC52-07NA27344. This work was funded in part by
the CEC under agreement EPC-14-086.

Biographies
Jonathan Donadee (donadee1@llnl.gov) is with Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California.
Robbie Shaw (Robbie@ethree.com) is with Energy and
Environmental Economics, Inc., San Francisco, California.
Oliver Garnett (Oliver@ethree.com) is with Energy and
Environmental Economics, Inc., San Francisco, California.
Eric Cutter (Eric@ethree.com) is with Energy and Environmental Economics, Inc., San Francisco, California.
Liang Min (min2@llnl.gov) is with Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, Livermore, California.

IEEE Elec trific ation Magazine / J UNE 2 0 1 9

45



IEEE Electrification - June 2019

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