IEEE Electrification - September 2021 - 10

TECHNOLOGY LEADERS
steady-state frequency error, when the
number of generators is significant,
this error becomes negligible. Also, the
secondary level includes a PID algorithm
for a steady-state frequency-error
cancellation (frequency
restoration) in a 10-min horizon.
This droop control (primary) plus
PID control (secondary) solution
works well in a conventional grid
with many power generators. However,
this control strategy should be
revisited in more sophisticated grids
and specially in microgrids with few
power generators.
CCD and Microgrid
Optimization
Designing the power grid, and in particular
microgrids, is a multidisciplinary
effort. The key topics include
static and dynamic studies, economic
analysis, environmental aspects,
and statistic considerations. Often,
these microgrid designs are developed
in a sequential way that relies
at least on three steps, as displayed
in Figure 4.
Using the appropriate computer
tools, a first step considers steadystate
calculations (T1.1) and a cost
analysis (T1.2), which define and
select the generators, loads, storage
systems, and networks. Following
this, and with additional computer
tools, a second step designs the protection
systems (T2), including
switches, relays, and coordination
strategies. Finally, and with other
computer tools, a third step studies
the dynamic problem and designs the
control system (T3), including sensors,
actuators, and control algorithms.
As presented in Figure 4, this is an
Load-Sharing
Problem
independent and sequential design
process that studies the dynamics
and develops the control system at a
very late stage. Although practical,
this sequential approach limits the
possibilities of the final microgrid.
Every step of this design methodology
severely reduces the options of
the next step of the process.
Multidisciplinary dynamic sysFrequency
Many
Power
Inputs
Inertia
Time (s)
Figure 2. The frequency load-sharing control problem among power generators.
tems, like microgrids or the entire
power grid, cannot be optimized
unless subsystem dynamic interactions
and control systems are considered
in the system optimization
process. A solution is the CCD
approach. With a concurrent engineering
philosophy, CCD considers
the dynamic subsystem interactions
from the very beginning of the design
process, discussing simultaneously
the dynamics of generators, loads,
Inertial
Tertiary Control
Secondary Control
Primary Control
Inertial Response
530
Subtransient
Response
Figure 3. A conventional grid hierarchical control architecture.
10
IEEE Electrification Magazine / SEPTEMBER 2021
Voltage/Frequency
Control
600
Voltage/Frequency
Restoration
Time (s)
Energy Management
Market
Response
Primary
Control
Secondary
Control
Tertiary
Control
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)

IEEE Electrification - September 2021

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