Food Protection Trends - May/June 2014 - 140

manager workforce was less than 30 years of age. Of these,
approximately 20% were between 16 and 25 years of age;
however, it should be noted that the most recent NRA
Industry Report (26) found that the percentage of 16- to
24-year-olds in the foodservice workforce was smaller in
2010 (38%) than in 2000 (42%). Conversely, the same
report indicated that the percentage of those 55 and older
increased from 8% to 10% during the same period. The
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported in 2011 that adults
over age 65 represented 16% of the entire labor force. In
addition, of those employed in foodservices, the majority
were female (54%) and 22% reported Hispanic or Latino
backgrounds. This is consistent with information from
the NRA report (25); Hispanic employees held 29% of all
dishwasher positions, 26% of all cook positions, and 22% of
all chef and head cook positions. Wilson (46) found that the
majority (74.2%) of hourly employees working in school
meal programs in her Midwest sample were women between
the ages of 41 and 60 years. College and university dining
foodservices usually employ workers of a wide age range,
with full-time staff of various ages and part-time college
students, typically 18 to 22 years of age.
The foodservice industry in the U.S. has remained stable
during the economic crisis that has affected the country since
2008. It is estimated that about half of every dollar spent
on food by Americans is spent on food prepared away from
home, with an average of 130 million people dining in a
commercial or noncommercial foodservice each day (40).
Knowledge and training of foodservice employees
Although many states require the person in charge and
others involved in foodservice administration to demonstrate
knowledge of food safety (43), in 2008 it was found that
59% of known or reported foodborne illnesses could be
traced back to mistakes made in the kitchen of a commercial
foodservice operation (9). It is estimated that foodborne
disease, from known and unknown pathogens, causes 48
million cases of foodborne illness and results in 3,000 deaths
in the U.S. each year (31, 32).
The impact of a foodborne illness is well recognized by
industry professionals, and the preventative measures
foodservice personnel can take to mitigate foodborne
illnesses have been well documented in the literature
(41, 42, 45). However, food safety is a complex issue that
involves microbiological, physical, and chemical threats
from environmental and human sources. Hourly employees
are in a unique position to prevent or minimize the risk of
foodborne illness from foods prepared and served to people
away from home.
Traditionally, food safety training has been the mechanism
used by owners and managers to ensure that food handlers
are knowledgeable about safe food practices. The benefits
of employee food safety training have been explored in
numerous studies, although results have been inconsistent.

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Food Protection Trends

May/June

Several studies have found that training helps to improve
overall employee knowledge of food safety (12, 15, 20,
29), although other studies have found that training is not
consistently associated with improved knowledge (23, 27, 47).
Studies have also found that food safety training is positively
associated with improved microbiological food quality (11),
increased food safety inspection scores (13, 21), and selfreported changes in food safety practices (10, 24).
However, observational research indicates that compliance
with food safety practices is low. In 1998, the FDA (41)
conducted an observational study to explore foodborne illness
risk factors in a multitude of settings, including hospitals,
nursing homes, elementary schools, and full- and quick-service
restaurants. Compared with identified standards, overall the
restaurant industry had the lowest mean compliance score,
with the full-service industry scoring 13 percentage points
lower than any other segment of the foodservice industry.
In 2003 and 2008, the FDA (42, 45) conducted follow-up
studies, and all segments of the foodservice industry were
still noted for lack of full compliance. Both reports identified
risk factors for foodborne illness that needed priority
attention: improper holding time and temperature, poor
personal hygiene, lack of chemical control, protection of
equipment from contamination, and inadequate cooking.
Proper handwashing was the practice with the highest outof-compliance rate for all facility types in all FDA studies,
ranging from 34% noncompliance rate for hospitals to 73%
for full-service restaurants. The follow-up studies noted that
compliance was higher in noncommercial institutional settings
than in commercial operations. This finding was consistent
with an observational study of handwashing practices in
four sectors of the foodservice industry (36). LeBaron et al.
(22) reported that hands may be the most important means
by which enteric viruses are transmitted; thus, frequent and
proper handwashing is critical. Hand contact with ready-to-eat
foods represents a potentially important mechanism by which
pathogens may enter the food supply.
FDA studies also noted a 40% or higher noncompliance
rate for cleaning and sanitizing practices, which can lead to
contamination of foods. Proper cleaning and sanitizing of
equipment was observed only in elementary schools, with 33%
to 70% of all other types of foodservices being noncompliant.
Cross-contamination through poor employee practices is often
cited as a cause of foodborne illness. Previous research (6)
identified the top three factors that contributed to foodborne
illnesses as improper holding temperatures, poor personal
hygiene, and cross-contamination. Research continues to
identify these three factors as a concern within the foodservice
environment (18, 27, 29, 35, 36, 41, 42, 45).
Supervisors' role
Arendt and Sneed (3) approached food safety practices
as a supervisory function. They postulated that because
traditional training has been found to be ineffective at

Food Protection Trends - May/June 2014

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