Food Protection Trends - September/October 2019 - 373

respondents that washing hands with soap and water is
better than simply washing hands with only water to avoid
transmission of foodborne pathogens, whereas application
of disinfectants is encouraged to ensure effective hand
sanitization (15, 30, 32, 44, 73, 101).
One should avoid consuming risky foods, such as raw eggs,
as they are categorized in the second level of food vehicles
that may contribute to Salmonella infection outbreaks. Thus
it is best to consume only well-cooked eggs (23, 102, 105).
In the present study, the respondents reported that they had
used a hygienic practice, as they claimed to fry eggs until the
white and yolk are solid, perhaps because they disliked raw
eggs (106).
The result that appears to stand out in this study is the
fact that a majority of the respondents (94.4%) did not use
a thermometer when cooking meat. Using a thermometer
is the most reliable method of ascertaining that food is well
done and is thus clear from risks of pathogens. Griffith (31)
asserted that consuming raw meat may result in an outbreak
of E. coli O157 infection, which could lead to hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), particularly among young consumers.
However, some pathogens, such as Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus spp. and Vibrio parahaemolyticus, are also found in
various types of cooked food (1, 4, 5).
Several prior studies also highlight the fact that inadequately cooked food may result in Campylobacter and Salmonella
infections, mainly because these pathogenic bacteria can be
completely destroyed only by food cooking thoroughly to
70°C (12, 18, 78). One reason for disregarding the use of
thermometers is dependence on food color, taste, and texture
to determine whether a particular dish, especially one containing a meat product is well done (45, 53, 91).
The tendency to use equipment that can fulfil the consumer's needs quickly, such as a microwave oven, is a prime
example. It is owned by most consumers at home nowadays for
reheating or cooking of food, and it may also be the reason for
the lack of thermometer usage (66). This could be considered
a good practice, however, because the Malaysian cooking style
encourages marinating food with various of spices, and this,
coupled with the use of a microwave oven, could potentially reduce the production of heterocyclic amines, which are possibly
carcinogenic (42, 43).
In relation to thermometer use, this study found that many
respondents (89.6%) did not have a thermometer in their
refrigerators. In Malaysia, the recommended temperature for
refrigerators is 4°C, and food stored at temperatures above
this standard temperature may provide an excellent breeding
ground for foodborne pathogens, thus compromising
food safety (39, 55, 80, 99, 106). Because of the absence of
thermometers in refrigerators, this study emphasizes as an
effective measure to control temperatures in refrigerators,
apart from raising awareness among users regarding the
importance of adhering to the standard temperature, seal
conditions and the distance to a heat source as alternatives,

in order to maintain a safe temperature for food safety
(35). Besides equipping refrigerators with thermometers,
the aspect of cleanliness of refrigerators also needs to be
addressed, primarily because the door handle and the bottom
shelf of a refrigerator have been identified as the critical areas
for the growth of foodborne pathogens (20, 21).
In this study, groups comprised of females, tertiary
graduates, families with 3 children, and those who prepared
food every day achieved significantly better scores than
others for food safety practices, and the regression model
suggested that females, tertiary graduates, and families
with 3 children were the significant predictors for food
safety practice among the respondents. Consistent with
prior studies, females indicated a good level in food safety
practices, compared with males (64, 93). This particular
result supports the notion of the essential role of females
in families, especially in matters related to food handling at
home (29).
As predicted, tertiary graduates seem to handle food more
safely than their counterparts do. This is in line with findings
reported in past studies of food safety practices (11, 19, 62,
98). This tertiary group, which is better educated, may be more
aware of risks posed by FBDs because of their prior knowledge
and greater exposure to information. For instance, those aware
of the effects of Listeria monocytogenes infection would be likely
to handle and store food products correctly in an effort to
avoid the horrendous consequences of listeriosis (25).
Unexpectedly, this study revealed that families with 3 or
more children used good food safety practices. This seems
to contradict the results reported by George et al. (30) that
found that many parents do not use practices of personal
hygiene that prevent diarrheal infections. In general, the
respondents appear to be aware and knowledgeable regarding
the risks posed by FBDs and thus adopted safe food practices
in an effort to protect their children from FBDs outbreaks.
Parents who frequently prepare food at home would likely
be well aware of the importance of food hygiene in staying
healthy. Taylor et al. (96) reported that mothers, especially,
tend to do their own research by reading or seeking websites
on specific safe food practices in their attempt to avoid
Listeria infection.
CONCLUSION
This study shows that self-reported food safety practices
among Sarawakian consumers are unsatisfactory and hence
demand critical attention in several significant aspects,
particularly the use of thermometers in cooking and temperature control in refrigerators. In addition, food safety
education must be emphasized to enhance the awareness of
the impact of pathogens present in foods on human health.
Educational programs should be organized to disseminate
information pertaining to personal and equipment hygiene
in handling food, proper food storage methods, and ways
to avoid high-risk foods so as to avoid outbreaks of FBDs.

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Food Protection Trends - September/October 2019

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