Food Protection Trends - September/October 2020 - 360

application and harvest were inconsistent with good food
safety practices. Cambodia does not have recommendations
for the harvest intervals after application of fresh manure
on vegetable crops (e.g., USDA-National Organic Program
rule indicates a minimum of 120 days between manure
application and harvest for vegetables in contact with the
soil and 90 days for all other crops); this lack of such a rule
in Cambodia increases the likelihood of pathogens being
present in the soil (42).
Proper washing is not frequently practiced by multiple
actors across the vegetable value chain, in both provinces
and by both males and females. Washing vegetables
properly is a method of reducing parasitological and
bacterial contamination (1, 14, 20, 29). However, it is
critical to note that washing can negatively impact vegetable
quality after storage and can increase post-harvest loss
of vegetables, especially when washing is not followed
by cool storage (2, 14). Cool storage is not a widespread
practice among value chain actors in Cambodia, primarily
due to lack of financial resources and assistance necessary
for purchasing and operating refrigeration equipment.
It is likely that value chain actors are choosing not to
wash vegetable for this reason. More concerning, the
practice of cutting bruised portions out of vegetables
was commonly observed. This may exacerbate safety and
quality concerns by increasing microbial proliferation and
respiration of the cut produce (9, 14). The U.S. Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and other
United States institutions recommend always refrigerating
produce that is cut beyond what is necessary in normal
harvesting practices to ensure safety (8). For this reason,
infrastructure development is needed to increase farmers'
access to cool storage. Additionally, because of the absence
of cool storage, washing in the value chain might not be an
adoptable strategy to optimize food safety. Thus, at present,
the responsibility for washing vegetables rests in the hands
of consumers, and this should be effectively communicated,
in the form of verbal communication by retailers, consumer
training, consumer education and outreach programs, etc.,
to ensure that consumers understand that the vegetables
being sold are not free from contaminants and that they
share the responsibility for ensuring the safety of vegetables
before consumption.
With regard to transport, vegetables are also not being
delivered under cool temperatures, which further enhances
microbial proliferation and spoilage (9, 14). The lack of sanitation of transport vehicles might introduce cross-contamination to the vegetables. Poorly sanitized transport vehicles,
especially those that have been used to deliver animal products, can provide niches for pathogens and facilitate pathogen
transmission to vegetables transported in the same vehicle
(5, 33). Although this study did not explore whether animal
products were also transported in the same vehicle, the possibility that the practice occurs must be considered.

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Food Protection Trends September/October

Selling behaviors of vendors in distribution centers
and informal markets might also introduce pathogens
to vegetables, as well as support cross-contamination
between vegetables. Improper sanitation practices of stalls
increases the likelihood of survival of foodborne pathogens
(e.g., Salmonella enterica) on non-food surfaces (39).
Assessment results revealed inconsistency with survey
findings (e.g., using damaged tarps), which is commonly
observed in multiple consumer behavioral studies on food
safety practices (32). The low frequency of handwashing
and improper use of gloves (e.g., using fabric gloves,
not removing gloves when touching non-food objects,
not sanitizing before use) has been linked to multiple
outbreaks caused by cross-contamination (24, 26). Crosscontamination of foodborne pathogens from raw meat and
fish sources to vegetables has also been documented in
multiple studies (35, 40). The likelihood of contamination
is intensified by the low hygienic conditions in the
bathroom facilities commonly used by vendors, which
may support the spread of pathogen contamination across
vendors in the market (3, 37).
Gender disaggregated findings revealed that male
actors are more heavily engaged in on-farm and collection
activities. Males, more often than females, were found
to engage in on-farm practices that may contribute to
contamination of vegetables (e.g., higher use of organic
fertilizer, higher frequency of not properly cleaning
stalls, higher frequency of storing vegetables at room
temperature). This is consistent with past findings,
primarily because women are predominantly responsible
for household food preparation and purchases (10, 32).
Furthermore, the greater involvement of women in the
vegetable value chain, especially at retail, has been observed
previously in Cambodia (16).
Several practices of value chain actors were identified as
potential contamination points in the vegetable value chain.
Intervention strategies such as targeted educational training
programs, infrastructure development and regulatory
control harmonization are encouraged. Training should
focus on farmers to educate them on proper composting
and manure application methods to prevent introduction
of foodborne pathogens to vegetables. Training can also
be targeted toward collectors, because of their personal
relationship with farmers and their role as the bridge
between production and the retail sector. Collectors can
incentivize farmers to follow food safety practices by
purchasing vegetables only from farmers who practice
proper composting, etc. Vendors should also be trained
on safe handling of vegetables, such as separation of meats
from vegetables and proper handwashing in the market.
Moreover, training should be oriented toward genderspecific findings. For example, females represent the
predominant population of value chain actors, particularly
vendors; thus targeting them will create a robust impact on

Food Protection Trends - September/October 2020

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