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75, 82). Consumer food safety research proposed that an
internal locus of control leads to safer food preparation
practices (38); however, findings by Abbot et al. (1)
suggested that internal locus of control for safe food
handling and high levels of food safety self-efficacy do not
translate into safe food handling practices.
The illusion of control suggested from the findings of
this study indicates an internal locus of control among
respondents. Furthermore, it has distinguished that those
who had reported experiencing foodborne illness perceived
lower levels of control for ensuring food safety than those
who had not experienced foodborne illness. This suggests
that as a result of previous experience, the locus of control
has become more external than internal as those individuals
perceive they are unable to control such outcomes.
Perceived responsibility for food safety
Perceived responsibility and associated attitudes may
impact behavioral reactions (86). It is suggested that an
individual perceiving a sense of personal responsibility
may implement a desirable behavior (12). High levels of
responsibility were perceived among participants of this
study, suggesting personal attribution of responsibility. This
discovery is consistent with previous research, wherein
individuals perceived themselves as having high levels of
responsibility that are perceived to be greater than those
of others (3, 31, 33, 53, 70). The pervasive tendency of
individuals to perceive themselves in a favorable way and
overestimate their own qualities is acknowledged as a form
of self-enhancement and superiority bias that occurs in social
comparison (54).
As mentioned, participants in this study perceived
themselves to have high levels of control for food safety,
signifying an internal locus of control. It is suggested that
an individual's locus of control can affect the perceived
attribution of responsibility, which can impact behavior
(75). Previous food safety research reveals that perceptions
of responsibility are associated with increased perception of
control (61, 66, 70). Although Saulo and Moskowitz (77)
reported variations in perceptions of personal responsibility
according to gender, Evans and Redmond (33) did not
determine differences in perceived responsibility according
to gender. In addition, the present study did not determine
significant differences in perceived responsibility according
to gender or age group.
Perceived responsibility was found to be significantly lower
among those who had experienced foodborne illness. There
is a need to consider how previous experience influenced
perceptions of responsibility. If a previous experience of
foodborne illness was associated with food consumed
away from the home (i.e., the blame was due to an external
factor), the outcome may be a perceived loss of control and
associated responsibility.
Perceptions of hygiene consciousness
High levels of hygiene consciousness were perceived
among the study participants and were significantly greater
than those perceived for others. This may be attributed to
previously discussed factors such as a superiority bias that
occurs in social comparison (54) or to a social desirability
bias wherein there is a tendency for an individual to present
a favorable image of themselves by give socially desirable
responses instead of choosing responses that are reflective
of their true feelings (45). Previous research has also
determined that respondents perceive themselves as being
more conscious of hygiene than others (33). This study
established that hygiene consciousness was significantly
lower among those who had experienced foodborne illness.
The authors anticipated that those who had experienced
such outcomes would have been more conscious of
hygiene. Therefore, there is a need for future research to
further explore the food safety knowledge, attitudes, and
self-reported practices of consumers in Lebanon who have
experienced foodborne illness compared with those who
have not experienced foodborne illness.
Relationships between perceptions of risk, control,
and responsibility
It is suggested that increased perceptions of responsibility
are associated with increased perceptions of control (61, 66,
70, 82). In the present study, strong positive correlations
were determined between all measured perceptions. High
levels of control, responsibility, and hygiene consciousness
were significantly associated with low levels of risk
(P < 0.001). Similarly, previous research has established
correlations between perceptions of risk, control, and
responsibility among older adults (31), people receiving
chemotherapy treatment for cancer (33), and consumers
from the general population (70). Houdi and Puttock (55)
discussed how factors such as knowledge, concern, perceived
ability to control, and understanding the source of a risk can
be used to predict how an individual perceives risk.
Impact of experiencing foodborne illness upon
perceptions of risk, control, responsibility, and hygiene
consciousness
An interesting and noteworthy finding of this study
is that significant differences were determined in food
safety-related perceptions according to reported foodborne
illness experiences (P < 0.05). Those who reported having
experienced foodborne illness perceived themselves to be
at significantly greater risk of foodborne illness, with lower
levels of control and responsibility for food safety and
lower levels of hygiene consciousness. Previous research
has established that food safety perceptions vary according
to those who have been affected by foodborne illness (67).
It is suggested that negative incidents, even those that
are overcome, can have a residual effect upon individual
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Food Protection Trends - March/April 2023

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