Food Protection Trends - March/April 2023 - 122

perceptions (88). Indeed, prior knowledge and experiences
have been demonstrated to have an impact upon perceptions
(5). Therefore, based on the findings of this study, it may be
proposed that a negative food safety experience can have a
negative impact upon an individual's personal perceptions
of risk, control, and responsibility to prevent the negative
experience from reoccurring. Such factors should be
considered in the development of future targeted food safety
education interventions.
Significant differences in perceptions for self and others
In this study, statistically significant differences were
ascertained for the perceptions of risk, control, responsibility,
and hygiene consciousness between self and others. It was
discovered that respondents perceived others to have a
greater level of risk of foodborne illness and lower levels
of control, responsibility, and hygiene consciousness
(P < 0.05) than themselves. Such perceptions demonstrate
that respondents exhibited perception of invulnerability
by underestimating personal risk (76), optimistic bias by
believing the risk is expected to occur among others (87), an
illusion of control by overestimating their personal ability to
control the risk (59, 83), and superiority bias by overrating
their qualities and abilities compared with others (54).
Comparable findings were unearthed in previous research
that reported similar perceptions and biases (31, 33, 70).
Significant differences according to gender, age,
and cooking frequency
Numerous consumer food safety research studies suggested
differences in food safety cognition according to
respondent gender and age group. Risk perceptions and
optimistic biases have been determined to vary according to
age, gender, and ethnicity (6, 9, 31, 33, 70, 77). In the present
study, no significant differences (P > 0.05) in perceptions of
risk, control, responsibility, or hygiene consciousness were
determined according to the demographic characteristics
of respondents, including gender, age group, and cooking
frequency.
Limitations
Given that the sample size is small (n = 95), the data
cannot be representative of the entire Lebanese population;
similarly, it must be considered those who opted to
participate in the study may have different perceptions
relating to food safety than those who opted against
participating in the study. Therefore, this scale should be
used to capture data from a representative sample of the
population in Lebanon.
Identified need for future research
Although comparisons in perceptions of risk, control,
and responsibility can be made with previous research by
Redmond and colleagues (31, 33, 71), existing research
122 Food Protection Trends March/April
denotes the perceptions of consumers and vulnerable groups
in the United Kingdom. There is a need to extend consumer
food safety perception research to enable comparison of
findings with consumers from other countries in the Middle
East and North Africa region. There is a need to further
consider the distinctive food safety risks that exist for
consumers in Lebanon as a result of the unique political,
economic, and energy challenges faced by that country. For
example, Lebanon suffers from a chronic shortage of power
supply: the national power grid does not generate sufficient
electricity to meet the country's needs; therefore, many
Lebanese consumers rely upon privately owned dieselpowered
generators for power (2, 57). However, during 2021,
extreme fuel shortages resulted in no centrally generated
electricity and not enough fuel for private electricity
generators, resulting in power blackouts throughout Lebanon
(11, 72). In relation to this, previous research has reported
that Lebanese consumers failed to ensure that refrigerators
operate at recommended temperatures during power outages
(51). However, there is a need to further explore the food
safety perceptions and practices of Lebanese consumers
when faced with power outages, because it is suggested that
increased food poisoning and spoilage in Lebanon are the
likely result of electricity shortages (65). There is also pivotal
need to consider the perceptions and practices of Lebanese
consumers in relation to potential issues associated with the
unclean and inadequate drinking water supply in Lebanon
(26). There is a further need to consider how factors such as
food insecurity in Lebanon (25) can impact upon food safety
perceptions and practices of consumers.
Considering the potential broad scope of food safety
perceptions, the specific perceptions of risk, control, and
responsibility should be explored among consumers for
components of food safety such as personal hygiene, safe
handling and preparation of food, prevention of crosscontamination,
cleaning procedures, refrigerated storage,
and cooking temperatures. Given the quantitative nature
of the present study, subsequent qualitative exploration of
risk, control, and responsibility perceptions is vital among
Lebanese consumers. This is in agreement with other recent
research in the area, suggesting a need for more research
in the Arab region to understand the determinants of risk
perceptions by considering psychological factors on the risk
to health (37). Likewise, potential relationships between
perceptions of risk and levels of trust and understanding of
the food chain and how it is regulated should be considered
and explored (43).
CONCLUSIONS
This is the first study to explore the perceptions of risk,
control, responsibility, and hygiene consciousness among a
group of consumers in Lebanon. Participants in this study
perceived themselves to have high levels of control and
responsibility for food safety and high levels of hygiene
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